SWARAJYA
 After Aurangzeb ascended the throne in the North, he moved ahead with the aim to conquer the Deccan kingdoms. He is ruthless in his quest and would leave no stones unturned.

Raja Shivaji, a jagirdar from the hills of western Deccan, wants Swaraj in its truest sense. He cherishes his freedom and has raised his sword against those who stand between him and his goal to gain Swaraj. With his unrivalled courage and a drive to liberate all the Deccan kingdoms from the oppressive rule of Aurangzeb, Shivaji and Aurangzeb’s  power struggle makes for an epic saga.
Frontiers, a historical saga by Medha Deshmukh Bhaskaran, brings to life the complex and ever-shifting dynamics between these two arch nemeses.
Let’s take a look at few ideas of swaraj as understood by Shivaji:
Shivaji’s idea of Swaraj
According to Shivaji, Swaraj is the birthright of every human. He longed for a world which was no longer entangled in the clutches of biases, cruelty, religious conflicts and discrimination of any kind. Thus, he fought for the freedom of the Marathas from the oppressive rule of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. He wanted to establish a Hindavi Swaraj.
Take a look at few ideas of swaraj as understood by Shivaji:

 Hindavi Swarajya (Hindavī Svarājya; "self-rule of Hindu people", meaning independence from foreign rule)^[1][2][3] is a term attributed to Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire.^[3] After Shivaji's death, the term swarajya came into widespread use, without "Hindavi" but rather associated with "Maratha". According to André Wink, the term "Maratha swarajya" meant a form of zamindari sovereignty, not necessarily attached to any particular territory.^[4] The term Swaraj was later adopted by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, one of the early leaders of the Indian independence movement against the British Empire

Shivaji Maharaj is one of the great national heroes of India. He created an independent and sovereign state in Maharashtra which was based on justice, welfare of the people and tolerance to all faiths. The aims, objectives and Rajnitee of the Maratha Swaraj under Chhatrapati Shivaji provided a new direction to contemporary politics of India. In course of time, his movement assumed, the form of an all-India struggle; a struggle which was to change the political map of India.

Shivaji Maharaj was born at the Shivneri fort near Junnar in Pune district on 19th February 1630. Shivaji’s mother, Jijabai was the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindkhed. His father Shahajiraje Bhosale was a prominent sardar in the Deccan. At the time of Shivaji Maharaj’s birth, most of the territory in Maharashtra was under the possession of the Nizamshah of Ahmednagar and the Adilshah of Bijapur. In the coastal belt of Konkan there were two sea powers, the Portuguese and the Siddi. The British and the Dutch who were engaged in expanding their trade also had their factories on the coast. 

The Mughals, since the period of Emperor Akbar 1 wanted to expand their power in the South. The Mughals launched a campaign to conquer the Nizamshahi Kingdom. The Adilshah of Bijapur allied with the Mughals in this campaign. Shahahajiraje tried to save the Nizamshahi, but he could not withstand the combined might of the Mughals and the Adilshahi. The Nizamshahi kingdom came to an end in A.D. 1636. Thereafter Shahajiraje became a sardar of the Adilshah of Bijapur and was posted in Karnataka. The region comprising Pune, Supe, Indapur and Chakan parganas located between the Bhima and Nira rivers which was vested in Shahajiraje as a jagir was continued by the Adilshah. Shahaijiraje was also assigned a jagir of Banglore. Veermata Jijabai and Shivajiraje, stayed for a few years with Shahajiraje at Banglore till Shivajiraje was twelve years old. Shahajiraje entrusted the administration of the Pune jagir to Shivajiraje and Veermata Jijabai. Shivajiraje grew up amidst the hills and valleys of Pune region under the guidance of his mother Jijabai.

Foundation of Swaraj

A number of small spurs run eastward from the sahyadris in the Pune region. The extremely rugged valleys enclosed by these are usually known as the Mavals or Khores each named after stream running through it, or after the principal village. Collectively they are known as the Mavals. The inhabitants of this region who are called the Mavalas, were an extremely hardy people. Shivaji Maharaj started the work of founding the Swaraj in this region which is full of hills and valleys and is not easily accessible. He skillfully utilized the geographical features of Maval region for the purpose of the foundation of the Swaraj. He created a feeling of trust and affection in minds of the people. Many associates, companions and Mavalas joined him in his work of founding Swaraj. The objective of Shivaji Maharaj in founding the Swaraj is clearly expressed in his official seal or Mudra which is in Sanskrit. Through this Mudra, Shivaji Maharaj assured his people that the ‘ever-increasing like the crescent-moon, the kingdom of Shivaji, son of Shahaji, will always seek the welfare of the people’.

In the medieval period, forts carried much significance. With a firm hold over a fort, one could defend as well as control the surrounding area and could rule the land. In case of an enemy’s invasion, it was possible to protect the people taking shelter in the fort. The forts situated within the jagir of Shivaji Maharaj were not under his control, but were under the control of Adilshah.. Therefore an attempt to capture the forts meant to challenge the Adilshahi power. Shivaji Maharaj decided to acquire the forts that were within his own jagir. He captured the forts of Murumbdev (Rajgad), Torna, Kondhana, Purandar and laid the foundation of the Swaraj. Shivaji Maharaj was steadily but cautiously aiming at extending and consolidating his power. Those sardars who appreciated his aim were brought to his side, but some sardars in the Adilshahi opposed him. It was necessary to bring them under control for the purpose of founding the Swaraj.

The Capture of Javali

The region of Javali in Satara district was important from strategic point of view. Many routes to the Konkan were through Javali. For the expansion of the Swaraj in the Konkan, it was essential to control that region. The region of Javali was ruled by Chandrarao More, a powerful sardar in the Adilshahi. Shivaji Maharaj attacked Javali and captured it in A.D. 1656. Then he also captured Rairi. This strong fort, later under the name of Raigad, was to become the capital of Shivaji Maharaj. Shivaji Maharaj built the Pratapgad fort in the Javali valley to protect the newly conquered territory and to control the Paar pass. The victory at Javali led to the expansion of the Swaraj in Konkan. Shivaji Maharaj then crossed the Ghats and descended into Konkan. He captured Kalyan and Bhivandi on the Konkan coast which were under the control of Adilshahi. Shivaji Maharaj also captured forts like Mahuli, Lohagad, Tunga, Tikona, Visapur, Songad, Karnala, Tala and Ghosala, in the Konkan. Shivaji Maharaj was able to command the coast line because of his acquisition of this territory in the Konkan. He came in contact with the Portuguese, the British and the Siddi powers on the western coast. The Siddi controlled the fort of Janjira and the areas around, including Danda-Rajpuri. Wherever in future these powers created obstacles in the work of expanding the Swaraj, Shivaji Maharaj tried to curb their activities.

The Establishment of Maratha Navy

When Shivaji Maharaj became master of a long coastal strip, he deemed it necessary to undertake the construction of a Navy. Shivaji Maharaj realized that the one who had a navy, controlled the sea. To protect his own territory from the Siddi's depredations, to protect the merchant ships and ports in order to secure and enhance revenue incomes derived from maritime trade and customs duty, he concentrated on building the Navy. There were four hundred ships of various kinds in the Navy. They included battleships like Gurab, Galbat and Pal.

 Defeat of Afzal Khan and Battle of Javali

Shivaji Maharaj had openly challenged the Adilshahi by capturing forts in his jagir and the territory in north Konkan. At that time the Badi Sahiba was looking after the administration of Adilshahi. She sent Afzal Khan, a powerful and an experienced Adilshahi General to curb Shivaji Maharaj. Afzal Khan set out from Bijapur sometime in May 1659. To isolate Shivaji Maharaj, Ali Adilshah issued Farmans to the Deshmukhs in the Mavals, ordering them to join Afzal Khan. Besides this, Afzal Khan made efforts to seek the support of the Deshmukhs. A meeting between Shivaji Maharaj and Afzal Khan took place on 10th November 1659 at the foot of Pratapgad. At the meeting Afzal Khan attempted treachery. In retaliation, Shivaji Maharaj killed Afzal Khan. The Marathas destroyed Afzal Khan’s army in the dense forests of Javali. Shivaji Maharaj secured a large booty from Afzal Khan's camp which enabled him to consolidate and strengthen his position.

The Expedition of Siddi Jauhar

Shivaji Maharaj intended to capture as much of Adilshahi province and forts as possible. Thereafter, he captured from the Adilshah forts of Panhala, Vasantgad and Khelna. He renamed Khelna as Vishalgad. In A.D. 1660, to check the rapid progress of Shivaji Maharaj, the Adilshah sent Siddi Jauhar, the Sardar of Karnul region, with a large army against Shivaji Maharaj. The Adilshah gave Siddi the title of ‘Salabatkhan’. In these circumstances, Shivaji Maharaj took shelter in Panhala fort. Siddi’s soldiers led siege to the fort for about five months. Shivaji Maharaj found himself trapped inside the fort. Netoji Palkar made attempts to raise the siege by 4 attacking Siddi’s army from outside. But Siddi showed no signs of relenting. Shivaji Maharaj opened overtures with him. This led to slackness in the siege round Panhalgad. Taking advantage of the situation Shivaji Maharaj escaped through siege round the Panhala fort and proceeded to Vishalgad. Siddi Jauhar’s army pursued Shivaji Maharaj. Shivaji Maharaj stationed Baji Prabhu Deshpande at the foot of Vishalgad and entrusted the responsibility of stopping the Siddi’s army. Baji Parabhu Deshpande checked Siddi’s army at the Ghod pass near Gajapur. He fought with the greatest valour. Baji Prabhu died a hero’s death in this battle. While going to Vishalgad, Shivaji Maharaj also crushed the opposition of the Adilshahi sardars- Dalvi of Palwan and Surve of Shringarpur. Maharaj reached Vishalgad safely. While Shivaji Maharaj was trapped at Panhala, the Mughal army invaded the Swaraj. Shivaji Maharaj realized that it would not be prudent to fight two enemies at the same time. Therefore Shivaji Maharaj entered into a treaty with the Adilshah. As per the treaty, he returned the fort of Panhala to the Adilshah.

Conflict with the Mughals: Shaista Khan’s Invasion

For expansion of the Swaraj, conflict with the Mughals was inevitable. Emperor Aurangzeb appointed Shaista khan, to the viceroyalty of the Deccan, ordering him to invade and annex Shivaji Maharaj’s dominions. Shaista khan left Ahmednagar in February 1660 and arrived in Pune on 10th May 1660. He decided to capture the fort of Chakan to obtain supplies. Though the killedar of the fort of Chakan- Firangoji Narsala offered a strong resistance to Shaista khan’s army, the Mughals captured the fort of Chakan. Shaista khan captured Swaraj's territories -Pune, Supe. He set up his camp at Lal Mahal in Pune. The Mughal army began to ravage the regions around Pune. Shaista khan adopted the strategy to occupy as much of Shivaji Maharaj’s dominions as possible. Forces were dispatched to invade the Konkan region below the Ghats. Kalyan and Bhiwandi were captured by the Mughal army. Shaista Khan appointed Kartalabkhan on an expedition to the North Konkan. Shivaji Maharaj humbled the Khan in Umbarkhind. Shivaji Maharaj left Netoji Palkar to defend the North Konkan and he himself marched southwards and captured Dabhol, Chiplun, Sangameshwar, Rajapur, Palavani and Shringarpur. Two years had passed but Shaista khan still would not think of leaving Pune. Naturally, this had an adverse effect on the population. With a view to driving Shaista khan out of Pune, Shivaji Maharaj devised a bold plan. On 5th April 1663, Shivaji Maharaj raided Lal Mahal. In this raid, Shaista khan lost his fingers. He left Pune and shifted his camp to Aurangabad. The successful attack on Shaista khan resulted in an immense increase in Shivaji Maharaj's prestige and fame. It also had an impact on the people and their faith in capabilities of Maharaj was strengthened even further.

The Surat Campaign

In three years time, Shaista Khan had ravaged the territories of the Swaraj. It was necessary to make up this loss. Surat was the richest and most prosperous port of the Mughal Empire on the west coast. Europeans i.e. the British, the Dutch and the French had their factories there. Shivaji Maharaj devised a plan of attack on Surat. The Subhedar of Surat could not put up any resistance to the Marathas. Shivaji Maharaj obtained an enormous wealth from Surat. Surat campaign was a stunning blow to emperor Aurangzeb’s prestige.

Soon after his return from Surat, Shivaji Maharaj embarked upon a vigorous naval program. Shivaji Maharaj had realized the importance of sea forts. Sea forts would provide protection to the navy and keep in check the Siddi of Janjira and the Portuguese. He built Suvarnadurg. In 1664 he commenced the construction of Sindhudurg at Malvan. About the same time he strengthened a fort named Vijaydurg. He also built a fort named Padmadurg on a small island in front of Rajpuri in order to counter the Siddi power.

Jaisingh’s campaign against Shivaji Maharaj

With a view to crush growing power of Shivaji Maharaj, Aurangzeb sent Jaisingh of Ambar, an experienced and powerful Mughal Sardar. He left Delhi on 30th Septmeber 1664 and reached Pune on 3rd March 1665. Jaisingh's strategy was to isolate Shivaji Maharaj from his neighboring powers so that he would get neither help nor support from them, to prevent him from breaking out into the Mughal territory, to devastate his homeland and capture his forts. As per this strategy he was trying to provoke the Adilshahi against Shivaji Maharaj. Jaisingh was simultaneously instigating local rulers in the Karnataka against the Adilshah, so that the latter would be unable to help Shivaji Maharaj. To the Portuguese of Goa and Vasai, the Dutch of Vengurla, the British of Surat and the Siddis of Janjira, Jaisingh suggested that they should start a naval campaign against Shivaji Maharaj. He also drew up a plan of capturing the forts in possession of Maharaj. Jaisingh and Dilerkhan led siege to the fort of Purandar. Mughal forces were sent to various parts of Swaraj to devastate the territories of the Swaraj. Maharaj endeavored to resist the Mughals. When the Mughals put the fort of Purandar under siege, Murarbaji Deshpande fought with the greatest of courage. He died a hero’s death. Realizing that in this conflict with the Mughals, Shivaji Maharaj and his subjects had to face great losses, Maharaj began talks for a treaty with Jaisingh. A treaty between Jaisingh and Maharaj was signed in June 1665 which is known as ‘Treaty of Purandar’. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, Maharaj ceded twenty-three forts and adjacent areas yielding a revenue of four lakh hons to the Mughals. He also assured the Mughals of help against the Adilshahi.

Visit to Agra

Jaisingh’s campaign against the Adilshahi proved unsuccessful. Jaisingh and Aurangzeb felt that if the Adilshah, the Qutubshah and Shivaji Maharaj joined forces against the Mughals, it would be a great setback to the Mughal policies in the Deccan. Both of them felt that Shivaji Maharaj ought to be kept away at least for sometime from the Deccan politics. Jaisingh proposed to Shivaji Maharaj that he should visit Agra and meet the Emperor. After making thorough arrangements to ensure effective administration of his dominions during his absence, Shivaji Maharaj proceeded to Agra with his son Sambhaji and a few of his trusted people. 

hivaji Maharaj set out for Agra on 5th March 1666 and reached on 11th May 1666. Aurangzeb did not treat Shivaji Maharaj with due honour at his court. Livid with rage, Maharaj walked out of the court instantly. Aurangzeb then put him under a house arrest. Shivaji Maharaj devised a plan of escaping from his house arrest. He adroitly escaped from Agra and safely reached Rajgad on 20th November 1666. While returning from Agra, he left Sambhaji at Mathura. Later, Sambhaji was brought safely to Rajgad.

Offensive against the Mughals

For about four years after his return from Agra, Shivaji Maharaj concentrated his attention on putting the affairs of Swaraj in order. He re-organized army and carried repairs to forts. In 1670, Shivaji Maharaj followed an offensive policy against the Mughals. His first aim was to clear his homeland of the Mughals. He also aimed at recapturing the forts and territories ceded to the Mughals according to the treaty of Purandar. The strategy followed by Shivaji Maharaj was to capture the forts by sending a well-equipped army on one hand and on the other hand to keep the Mughals unstable by invading the Mughal territories of the Deccan. Maharaj thus attacked Ahmednagar and Junnar. Sinhgad was the first fort to be recaptured. Mavala infantry under the command of Tanaji Malusare entered the fort secretly. The fort was defended by Udai Bhan. Tanaji Malusare fought with greatest valour. He died a hero’s death. The fort was captured on 4th February 1670. Shivaji Maharaj also recaptured several other forts such as Purandar, Lohgad, Mahuli, Karnala, Rohida one after another. Then Shivaji Maharaj attacked Surat for the second time. On the way back he fought a battle with the Mughals at Vani- Dindori in Nashik district. He defeated Daud Khan in the battle. The Marathas under the leadership of Moropant Pingle captured Trimbakgad. The Maratha army then invaded Baglan, a hilly district which was guarded by nine hill forts, the strongest among these were of Salher and Mulher, the others being smaller hill forts. The Maratha army not only captured smaller hill forts of Baglan but also captured Mulher fort and Salher which lay on the border of Khandesh and Gujarat. The capture of Salher was an event of great strategic importance. Then Salher became a base of operations against the rich provinces of Gujarat and Khandesh. The Mughals tried to recapture Salher but failed. In 1672, Shivaji Maharaj’s army conquered the principality of Jawhar and then Ramnagar.

Offensive against the Adilshahi Sultanate

Shivaji Maharaj decided to expand his dominions at the expense of the Adilshahi Sultanate. He captured Panhala fort which was in the possession of Adilshah on 8th March 1673. Then he captured the fort of Parali near Satara, fort of Satara and forts like Chandan-vandan, Pandavgad Nandagiri, Kelanja and Tathavda.

Coronation

The founding of the Maratha Swaraj involved a relentless struggle for over thirty years. Maharaj realized that now it was necessary for the Swaraj to win general recognition as a sovereign, independent state. For legal recognition to the Swaraj, a formal coronation was necessary. On 6th June 1674, Shivaji Maharaj was coroneted at Raigad by Gagabhatt, a learned pandit of Benaras. Maharaj ascended the throne of the Swaraj. He now became the Chhatrapati of the Swaraj. As a symbol of sovereignty, Shivaji Maharaj instituted a new era commencing from the date of his coronation. It is known as Rajyabhisheka shaka. Shivaji Maharaj thus became the founder of a new era. On the occasion of the coronation, special coins were minted- a gold coin called hon and a copper coin called shivrai with the legend Shri Raja Shivachhatrapati inscribed on them. There after, all royal correspondence carried the words, 'Kshatriyakulaawatansa Shri Raja Shivachhatrapati'.A dictionary called Rajya-vyavahara-kosha, showing Sanskrit alternatives for Persian word was prepared. Sabhasad, a contemporary chronicler, while pointing out the significance of the coronation, writes ‘It was no mean achievement for a Maratha king to become such a great Chhatrapati’. The coronation of Shivaji Maharaj was a revolutionary event in the history of medieval India. Shivaji Maharaj had his second coronation performed under the guidance of Nischalpuri Gosavi.

The Campaign of the South

After the coronation Shivaji Maharaj marched to the conquest of Phonda near Goa and captured it in April 1675. Then the Marathas captured Ankola and Shiveshwar which was followed by annexation of Kolhapur. After that Shivaji Maharaj accomplished 'Dakshin Digvijay'. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj planned to carry his army to the east coast in the South and conquer the province of Adilshahi Karnataka. He undertook Karnataka expedition in 1677. Karnataka was long famous for its riches. At the same time it was ill-defended by the Adilshah. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj went to Golkonda to meet the Qutubshah. He entered into a treaty of friendship with him. In April 1677 he set out for the Adilshahi Karnataka. He captured Jinjee and proceeded to Vellore. The city withstood a long siege. The eastern portion of the south was mostly held by nobles of the Adilshahi kingdom. Vyankoji, Shivaji Maharaj’s step brother had carved out a principality for himself at Thanjavur. At Tirumalvadi, on the northern bank of the Coleroon, Vyankoji met Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Shivaji Maharaj tried to get Vyankoji to participate in the activities of the Swaraj. He did not get any response from Vyankoji. Later, Maharaj conquered Bangalore, Hoskote in Karnataka, certain other forts such as those at Vellore and also some parts of the Adilshahi kingdom. Permanent annexation in the south increased Maharaj’s strength and most importantly he was successful in executing his plan of defence which would help him to resist the armies of Aurangzeb in future. For administration of the newly conquered province Shivaji Maharaj made excellent arrangements. He appointed Raghunath Narayan Hanamante, the chief officer to look after these newly conquered territories. After accomplishing the mission of the south, Shivaji Maharaj returned to Swaraj.

Shivaji Maharaj decided to fortify the island of Khanderi, commanded a key position as it was located near Mumbai. The British then decided to lay a regular siege to the island. In this naval conflict the English had to withdraw their fleet. This brought to an end of the naval conflict between Shivaji Maharaj and the British.

Within few months Shivaji Maharaj fell ill. After a short illness he passed away at the Raigad fort on 3rd April 1680.

A Peoples’ King

The Swaraj established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj comprised of large areas of Nashik, Pune, Satara, Sangli, Kolhapur, Sindhudurg, Ratnagiri, Raigad and Thane districts of Maharashtra. It also included parts of Belgaum, Karwar and Dharwad districts of Karnataka and Jinjee, Vellore and their neighbouring areas in state of Tamil Nadu. He set up an efficient and sound system for the administration of this Swaraj. The administration was divided into eight departments. A minister was appointed at the head of every department. His council of eight ministers was known as the Ashta-Pradhan Mandal. Shivaji Maharaj followed a policy of encouraging agriculture. He paid attention to the welfare of the peasantry. He was also equally concerned about the growth of trade and protection of industries. Thus he turned the Swaraj into a surajya a state which sought the welfare of all. He was a great military commander, an outstanding general and a statesman. He had a clear concept of military organization.

His military organization consisted of infantry, cavalry and navy. Strict discipline, rapid movements, excellent intelligence service and continuous attention to defence marked his military organization. He used to take utmost care to protect his subjects especially at the time of enemy invasions. Shivaji Maharaj was also keen to see to it that the soldiers did not in any way cause any harm to the subjects. He followed a tolerant religious policy. The greatest achievement of Shivaji Maharaj was to inculcate the spirit of independence in his people. By his great deeds and achievements, Shivaji Maharaj created an altogether a new order of things. Shivaji Maharaj’s personality and message are as relevant today as they were in the past.

Popular belief holds that the Maratha warrior Shivaji used the phrase Hindavi Swarajya in a letter to Dadaji Naras Prabhu Deshpande of Rohidkhore on 17 April 1645. The purported letter, in Marathi, states:

It is God Rohireshvar that has given us victory; and that God would enable us to fulfil our wish of Hindavi Swarajya. It is God's will that this kingdom should be established.^[7]

Scholars do not agree on the authenticity of the letter.^[8][9] Historian Setumadhavarao Pagadi states that a lot of the historical source material on Shivaji is spurious, contributed by various influential families of Maharashtra to show how close their ancestors were to Shivaji.^[10] J. V. Naik states that, irrespective of the authenticity of the letter, Shivaji's career itself amply demonstrates his conception of Swarajya.^[11]

The term Hindavi (or Hindawi, as also Hindui and Hindi) has been in use since the 14th century with the meaning of "Indian". Poet Amir Khusro listed various "Hindavi languages" in use in his time.^[12][13] These were distinguished from Persian, the court language in most Muslim states.^[14] Historian Irfan Habib states that, the term "Hindu" had acquired a religious sense by this time, and so, other terms such as Hindi, Hindustani and Hindavi began to be employed to mean "Indian", spanning all Indian people.^[15] According to Pagadi, Hindavi had the sense of "the sons of the soil" in this context.^[16]

Swarajya (IAST: svarājya) is a Sanskrit term, whose meaning is "independent dominion or sovereignty" according to the Monier Williams dictionary.^[17] Pagadi notes that Shivaji had referred to his jagir in Pune as a rajya.^[18] He takes Swarajya to have meant a "homeland",^[19] and Hindavi Swarajya a "state of the sons of the soil".^[16]

Shivaji Bhonsle, also known as Shivaji Maharaj, was considered the people’s king. His iron determination, valour, and dominance were the epitomes to follow. His courage knew no bounds. This article includes long and short Shivaji Maharaj essays for students. You can follow the historical facts and write an essay on Shivaji Maharaj on your own. Follow the format and maintain the proper sequence to score more in the exam. These essays can also be used to prepare for a Shivaji Maharaj essay writing competition.

Living for the people was a king. The fighter who strives for the wellbeing of the people by fighting against injustice. The Maratha Empire is one of the world's prestigious empires created by a leader who refused to live as a slave. Our goal in this article is to give you some insight into the life of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the great Maratha warrior.

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was a Maratha warrior and founding ruler of the Maratha empire in western India. In India and even in other countries, he is still considered the greatest warrior of his time. An innovative military tactician and a skilful administrator, he is considered a valorous warrior. The great qualities he possessed as a leader and king helped him build the Maratha Empire into a powerful and massive power.Shivaji Bhonsle was born in the royal family of Shahaji Bhonsle. He was a born leader and went on to establish the Maratha Empire that even terrified the mighty Mughals. Born on 16th February 1627 in Shivneri, Shivaji was the proud son of Shahji. This Shivaji Maharaj essay in English will tell you about the glory and valour of the people’s king.

Shivaji’s mother Jijabai was also very strong in persnality. She was virtuous and gave the proper education to her son to make him fearless. He grew up listening to the valour and glory of the Ramayana and Mahabharata. He also followed the teachings of these two epics but also imbibed the strong resilient features of an ideal Hindu’s character. He never learned to bow down to any force. In this Shivaji Maharaj essay, his life and achievements will be unfurled.For the people whose lives were ruined by the Mughal Empire, the birth of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was a good omen. During the hardships of the Mughal rule, he came as a ray of hope for the people. Maharaj was born on 18th February 1630 according to the Julian calendar and on Falgun Krishna Tritiya (Falgun Krishna Tritiya) according to the Hindu calendar at Shivneri Fort, in Junnar city, near Pune district, to Shahaji Bhosale and Jijabai Bhosale. We have provided some information about Shivaji Maharaj's birthdate at the end of this article. (There are some controversies about Shivaji Maharaj's birthdate.)

During his childhood, his mother Jijamata called him "Shivba". He served the King of Bijapur during his young life. As well as being a "Jahagirdar," he lived in a certain area in Pune. Jijabai, Shivaji's mother, was a deeply religious and ambitious woman whose father was Sindkhed leader Lakhujirao Jadhav. The truth will triumph in the end, according to Shivaji, who has been taught that fighting for what is right no matter what challenges you face is the most important lesson she taught him as a child. As Shivaji was growing up, Jijamata's teachings had a profound effect on his mind.

He was encouraged by Dada Konadev to learn different warfare skills relevant to the contemporary era. His guru wanted him to survive any diverse condition by using such skills. Apart from his survival and warfare skills, he became a nationalist and the man of his words. Being a full-fledged warrior, he followed the teachings of Saint Ramdev and understood the importance of religion. This education included the importance of all religions, politics, and cultures. From the evidence of Shivaji Maharaj's essay in English of historians, you will observe that his skills and life lessons helped him to become one of the greatest leaders of India.ed into the reality of the world. He started to attack the enemies surrounding his kingdom and capture them one after the other to make a bigger and stronger empire. The moment his flag was hoisted in the forts of Toran and Purandar, the stories of his valour and strength reached Delhi and Agra. The rulers, whether they are tyrants or subject-loving, started to fear his name.

Adil Shah, the king of Bijapur, was afraid of his growing power. He then captured his father Shahji and imprisoned him. Learning about his father’s imprisonment, he was furious but did not lose his mind. He planned well and freed his father. This made Adil Shah even more furious. He ordered his commander Afzal Khan to plan a murder and eradicate Shivaji. Afzal acted as a friend to gain his confidence and kill him. Shivaji was one step ahead. He killed Afzal Khan by hiding a deadly dagger inside his cloak and fled.

Under his dominance and valour, the Maratha Empire grew stronger every day. He was known as a freedom fighter as he relieved commoners from the tyrants. He was considered to be anti-Muslim by many but it is not true. His two generals were Siddi and Daulat Khan. Historians suggest that his army consisted of soldiers from different races and religions. He never learned to differentiate between people in terms of caste, religion, or colour.

He focused his energy on eradicating the tyrants of the contemporary era. Most of them were Muslim rulers. He never instigated any religious war or motive to uproot a kingdom. All he did was to understand common people’s pain under the sabbatical Aurangzeb and other rulers. He freed many people and thus was given the name Chhatrapati Shivaji by his admirers.

He ruled the Maratha Empire for 27 years and created an example to follow. He then fell sick and suffered from an unknown fever for three weeks. He then succumbed to his illness and died on 3rd April 1680 in Raigad Fort.

Early life

Main article: Early life of Shivaji

See also: Bhonsle § origin

Shivneri Fort

Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near the city of Junnar, which is now in Pune district. Scholars disagree on his date of birth. The Government of Maharashtra lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth (Shivaji Jayanti).^[a][16][17] Shivaji was named after a local deity, the goddess Shivai.^[18][19] Shivaji's father Shahaji Bhonsle was a Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates.^[20] His mother was Jijabai, the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindhkhed, a Mughal-aligned sardar claiming descent from a Yadav royal family of Devagiri.^[21][22]

Shivaji belonged to Maratha family of Bhonsle clan.^[23] His paternal grandfather Maloji (1552–1597) was an influential general of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, and was awarded the epithet of "Raja". He was given deshmukhi rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan and Indapur for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence (c. 1590).^[24][25]

At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golkonda. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshah of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir (fiefdom) at Pune and his small army.^[20]

Background and context

South India at the turn of the 17th century

In 1636, the Adil Shahi sultanate of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.^[26] The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the Mughal empire.^[26][27] It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the Maratha uplands of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.^[26]

Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.^[28]

In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained Poona as a grant. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona. Shahaji, being deployed in Bangalore by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed Dadoji Kondadeo as administrator. Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over the administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.^[29]

Conflict with Bijapur sultanate

In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji took the Torna Fort, taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the ailment of the Sultan, and seized the large treasure he found there.^[30][31] In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including Purandhar, Kondhana and Chakan. Also, he brought Supa, Baramati and Indapur under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort Rajgad, which served as his capital for over a decade.^[30] After this, Shivaji turned to the Konkan and took possession of the important town of Kalyan. Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called, Baji Ghorpade under the orders of Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.^[32]

Shahaji was released in 1649 after the capture of Jinji secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During 1649–1655 Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.^[33] Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed Chandrarao More, a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur, and seized the valley of Javali, near the present-day hill station of Mahabaleshwar, from him.^[34] In addition to the Bhonsale and the More families, many others including Sawant of Sawantwadi, Ghorpade of Mudhol, Nimbalkar of Phaltan, Shirke, Mane and Mohite also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with Deshmukhi rights. Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families such as forming marital alliances, dealing directly with village Patil to bypass the Deshmukhs, or fighting them.^[35] Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude to his son, and disavowed his rebellious activities.^[36]He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji. Shahaji died around 1664–1665 in a hunting accident.

Combat with Afzal Khan

An early-20th-century painting by Sawlaram Haldankar of Shivaji fighting the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan

Pratapgad fort

The Bijapur sultanate was displeased at their losses to Shivaji's forces, which their vassal Shahaji disavowed. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young Ali Adil Shah II as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.^[37] In 1657 the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent Afzal Khan, a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the Tulja Bhavani Temple, holy to Shivaji's family, and the Vithoba temple at Pandharpur, a major pilgrimage site for the Hindus.^[38][39][40]

Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to Pratapgad fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender.^[41] The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private outside the fort to parley.^[42][43]

The two met in a hut at the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,^[44][b] wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a bagh nakh (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.^[46] The precise transpirings are not recoverable to historical certainty and remains enmeshed with legends in Maratha sources; however, they agree upon the fact that the protagonists landed themselves in a physical struggle which would prove fatal for Khan.^[c] Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji had him disemboweled; he then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army.^[48]

In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh fought on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate's forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.^[49] After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.^[49]

Siege of Panhala

Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji's army marched towards the Konkan and Kolhapur, seizing Panhala fort, and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them under Rustam Zaman and Fazl Khan in 1659.^[50] In 1660, Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north. At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged Panhala in mid-1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at Rajapur to increase his efficacy, and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the factors, imprisoning them until mid-1663.^[51]

After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad;^[52] Shivaji retook Panhala in 1673.^[53]

Battle of Pavan Khind

Main article: Battle of Pavan Khind

Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande of Bandal Deshmukh, along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort.^[54]

In the ensuing Battle of Pavan Khind, the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,^[23] signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.^[55] Ghod Khind (khind meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was later renamed Paavan Khind ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and all other soldiers who fought in there.^[55]

Conflict with the Mughals

Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb who then, was the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan and son of the Mughal emperor, in conquering Bijapur in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.^[56] Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar.^[57] This was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.^[58] Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battle of succession with his brothers for the Mughal throne following the illness of the emperor Shah Jahan.^[59]

Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat

Main articles: Battle of Chakan and Battle of Surat

A 20th century depiction of Shivaji's surprise attack on Mughal general Shaista Khan in Pune by M.V. Dhurandhar

Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000 along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of Chakan, besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls.^[60] Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger, better provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory, seizing the city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji's palace of Lal Mahal.^[61]

On the night of 5 April, 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.^[62] He, along with his 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.^[63] In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son, several of his wives, servants and soldiers were killed.^[64] The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal.^[65]

In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji sacked the port city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal trading centre.^[66]

Treaty of Purandar

Main article: Treaty of Purandar (1665)

Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a day before concluding the Treaty of Purandar

The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb. In response, he sent the Rajput Mirza Raja Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15,000 to defeat Shivaji.^[67] Throughout 1665, Jai Singh's forces pressed Shivaji, with their cavalry razing the countryside, and their siege forces investing Shivaji's forts. The Mughal commander succeeded in luring away several of Shivaji's key commanders, and many of his cavalrymen, into Mughal service. By mid-1665, with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near capture, Shivaji was forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.^[67]

In the Treaty of Purandar, signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold hun to the Mughals.^[68] Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan as a mansabdar.^[69][70]

Arrest in Agra and escape

20th century depiction by M.V. Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal Badshah, Aurangzeb.

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra (though some sources instead state Delhi), along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's planned to send Shivaji to Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle.^[71] Shivaji took offence and stormed out of court,^[72] and was promptly placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.^[73]

Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision.^[74] Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son and surrendered himself to Mughal forces.^[75][76] Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance.^{[77][78][79][80]} On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the large baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped and left Agra.^{[81][82][83][d]}

Peace with the Mughals

After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals.^[85] During the period between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji with general Prataprao Gujar to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, Prince Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection.^[86] Aurangzeb also permitted Shivaji to attack the decaying Adil Shahi; the weakened Sultan Ali Adil Shah II sued for peace and granted the rights of sardeshmukhi and chauthai to Shivaji.^[87]

Reconquest

Statue of Shivaji opposite Gateway of India in South Mumbai

The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670. At that time Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.^[88][89] Also at that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.^[90] The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.^[91] In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to them in a span of four months.^[92]

Shivaji sacked Surat for second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from Mawara-un-Nahr who was returning from Mecca. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat, but were defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day Nashik.^[93]

In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.^[94]

Battles of Umrani and Nesari

In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.^[95]

Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by his commander's rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind. Prataprao was killed in combat; Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, Rajaram, to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by Hambirrao Mohite, as the new sarnaubat (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces). Raigad Fort was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar as a capital of nascent Maratha kingdom.^[96]

Coronation

20th century depiction of the Coronation Durbar with over 100 characters depicted in attendance by M.V. Dhurandhar

Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he was still technically a Mughal zamindar or the son of a Bijapuri jagirdar, with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, to whom he was technically equal.^[e] it would also provide the Hindu Marathas with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.^[98]

The preparation for the proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some controversial problems delayed the coronation by almost a year.^[99] Controversy erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji's court: they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the kshatriya (warrior) varna in Hindu society.^[100] Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorised him as being of the shudra (cultivator) varna.^[101][102] They noted that Shivaji had never had a sacred thread ceremony, and did not wear the thread, which a kshatriya would.^[101] Shivaji summoned Gaga Bhatt, a pandit of Varanasi, who stated that he had found a genealogy proving that Shivaji was descended from the Sisodias, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank.^[103] To enforce this status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya.^[104][105] However, following historical evidence, Shivaji's claim to Rajput, and specifically Sisodia ancestry may be interpreted as being anything from tenuous at best, to inventive in a more extreme reading.^[106]

On 28 May, Shivaji performed penance for not observing Kshatriya rites by his ancestors' and himself for so long. Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread.^[107] On insistence of other Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt dropped the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji in a modified form of the life of the twice-born, instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement for the sins, deliberate or accidental, committed in his own lifetime.^[108] He was weighed separately against seven metals including gold, silver and several other articles like fine linen, camphor, salt, sugar etc. All these metals and articles along with a lakh of hun were distributed among the Brahmins. But even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins. Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his raids, had burnt cities involving the death of Brahmins, cows, women and children and he could be cleansed of this sin for a price of Rs. 8,000, and Shivaji paid this amount.^[108] Total expenditure made for feeding the assemblage, general alms giving, throne and ornaments approached 1.5 million Rupees.^[109]

Shivaji was crowned king of the Maratha Empire (Hindawi Swaraj) in a lavish ceremony on 6 June 1674 at Raigad fort.^[110][111] In the Hindu calendar it was on the 13th day (trayodashi) of the first fortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596.^[112] Gaga Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers Yamuna, Indus, Ganges, Godavari, Narmada, Krishna and Kaveri over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before Jijabai and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.^[113][114] Shivaji was entitled Shakakarta ("founder of an era")^[1] and Chhatrapati ("sovereign"). He also took the title of Haindava Dharmodhhaarak (protector of the Hindu faith).^[2]

Shivaji's mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantrik priest, who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a second coronation was needed. This second coronation on 24 September 1674 had a dual-use, mollifying those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by performing a less-contestable additional ceremony.^{[115][116][117]}

Conquest of southern India

Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding Khandesh (October), capturing Bijapuri Ponda (April 1675), Karwar (mid-year), and Kolhapur (July).^[118] In November, the Maratha navy skirmished with the Siddis of Janjira, but failed to dislodge them.^[119] Having recovered from an illness, and taking advantage of a civil war that had broken out between the Deccanis and the Afghans at Bijapur, Shivaji raided Athani in April 1676.^[120]

In the run-up to his expedition, Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.^[121][122] His appeal was somewhat successful, and in 1677 Shivaji visited Hyderabad for a month and entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golkonda sultanate, agreeing to reject his alliance with Bijapur and jointly oppose the Mughals. In 1677, Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, backed by Golkonda artillery and funding.^[123] Proceeding south, Shivaji seized the forts of Vellore and Gingee;^[124] the latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of his son Rajaram I.^[125]

Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son by his second wife, Tukabai (née Mohite), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad, Shivaji defeated his half-brother's army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions in the Mysore plateau. Venkoji's wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also convinced her husband to distance himself from Muslim advisors. In the end, Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and maintenance of Shahji's memorial (samadhi).^[126][127]

Death and succession

Sambhaji, Shivaji's elder son who succeeded him

The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to Panhala in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the Mughals for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.^[128]

Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,^[129] on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux being sick for 12 days.^[f] In a contemporary work in Portuguese, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.^[131][132] However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of Sabhasad Bakhar, the biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death of Shivaji.^[133][132] Putalabai, the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed sati by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.^[128] There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife Soyarabai had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son Rajaram on the throne.^[134]

After Shivaji's death, Soyarabai made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her son Rajaram rather than her stepson Sambhaji. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of Raigad Fort after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.^[135] Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai, and mother Soyrabai were imprisoned, and Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy that October